Evaluating the efficacy of virtual reality-based training in classroom settings for additive manufacturing education

This study aimed to design, develop, and evaluate a virtual reality (VR)-based training module for additive manufacturing (AM), specifically Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) 3D printing, that simultaneously delivers declarative and procedural knowledge in classroom settings. While VR has shown promise in teaching procedural and declarative knowledge separately, few studies have assessed integrated VR training modules in real classroom environments, especially in AM education. A VR training system with four sub-modules: tutorial, learning, training, and testing, was developed in Unity 3D. Twenty-five university students completed the module over three days using Meta Quest 3 headsets. Efficacy was assessed using the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ), Presence Questionnaire (PQ), System Usability Scale (SUS), and NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX). MANCOVA and ANCOVA were used to analyze demographic and experiential predictors of outcomes. The average SSQ score was 7.19, indicating low simulator sickness. SUS scores improved from 59.00 (SD = 15.78) to 64.60 (SD = 16.89) post-exposure. PQ scores increased from 74.80 to 79.16. NASA-TLX results, assessed post-lab visit, showed low physical demand (M = 14.0, SD = 8.291562), high performance (M = 72.0, SD = 23.048861), and a significant reduction in frustration (M = 35.4, SD = 27.985115) after real-world exposure. Video game experience significantly predicted usability both before (p = 0.047) and after the lab experience (p = 0.045). The VR-based AM module demonstrated feasibility, acceptable usability, and cognitive engagement, supporting its value for integrated learning in classroom settings. This study offers a replicable framework for implementing immersive, usability-driven VR tools to enhance technical education in manufacturing and STEM.